HISTORY OF ANCIENT TAMIL CIVILIZATION

The salient features of the ancient Tamil civilization are widely known among the scholars. The geologists, the zoologists and the botanists have stated with evidences and clarity about the existence of the land mass, called Lemuria Continent, beyond the present day Kanyakumari and that Lemuria Continent had submerged under the sea.

The Tamil and Sanskrit literature also attest to the fact of the existence of the land mass beyond Kanyakumari in the ancient times. But some historians refuse to accept the Lemurian theory and simply dismiss it as a mere myth, raising three objections.

According to some scholars, Atlantic Ocean has also submerged a land mass, called Lemuria Continent. It means that two land masses were submerged by the sea, and both the land masses were called Lemuria Continent. It would be incredible to call two submerged continents by a single name-Lemuria Continent.

To avoid this confusion, it would be better to reject the name Lemuria Continent to the land mass sunken by the Indian Ocean and call that land mass by another appropriate name. Since the Kumari hills and Kumari river were there on the sunken land beyond kanyakumari, according to the Tamil literature, that land could be called Kumari Land.

The second objection of the historians is the unbelievable nature of the sea engulfing the whole continent. But, on 26 December 2004, we were the witness to the huge seismic waves, triggered by a massive under-sea earthquake off Sumatra in Indonesia, hitting the coastal areas of half a dozen littoral countries of the Indian Ocean, washing away a number of villages and towns, killing more than three lakhs of people and causing destruction of properties worth several thousand crores of rupees. The titanic tsunami as it was called, was described as the fifth largest earthquake under the sea since the beginning of the 20th century and the biggest in 40 years.

Likewise, as described in Tamil and Sanskrit literature, several tsunami hit the Kumari Land and devoured it completely. According to the commentary on Iraiyanavar Agapporul, three tsunamis hit and submerged Kumari Land. The first tsunami hit Thenmadurai, the first capital of Pandyas and devoured a part of the Kumari Land; the second tsunami hit Kapatapuram, the second capital of Pandyas and submerged some more parts of the Kumari Land; and the third tsunami hit Manalur and submerged the remaining parts of the Kumari land.

The Third objection of the historians is about the vastness of the land mass engulfed by the sea. The theory that the Kumari Continent extended from the present day Kanyakumari to the eastern shores of Africa before millions of years may be rejected as there are doubts about the existence of human beings at that time. Further, our period of study starts only from the historic period, at which time the Kumari Land was not as big as a continent, but a compact land mass extending from the present day Kanyakumari.

This is also confirmed by SM. Ramasamy in his article Satellite Sensed Landmass – South of Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari). The studies so far carried out by the geosciences of different parts of the world have brought a hierarchy of information that the sea bed is not a plain or a trough, but rather has folded mountains, submarine volcanoes, mid-oceanic ridges, submarine canyons, etc. The studies by the earlier researchers also have brought out many such topographic features below the sea in between Kanyakumari in the north and the Antartica in the south.

SM. Ramasamy informs that the satellite pictures taken over the Indian Ocean had shown mountains lying at a depth of about 4000 meters below the present mean sea level. Hence, there is no possibility to consider these folded and cliffed mountains of Kumari Continent, as these are not suitable for human settlements and for human civilization.

But a plain sea floor extending to about 20,000 Sq.Km. between Kanyakumari and the cliffed mountains is found. This widespread land could be the Kumari Land described in Tamil and Sanskrit literature. Successive tsunamis hit the first two ancient capitals of Pandyas – Thenmadurai and Kapatapuram were situated.

Synchronizing the information of SM. Ramasamy with the table of deluges provided by S. Gurumurthy and the statement of the commentator of Irayanar Agapporul, it may be assumed that Thenmadurai was engulfed by the sea around 3000 B.C. and Kapatapuram around 1500 B.C. and Manalur at a later date. Therefore, any unbiased historian would accept the rational opinion of the scholars about the then possible existence of Kumari land beyond the present day Kanyakumari and its submersion by the sea.

According to SM. Ramasamy, the cliffed mountains in the Kumari Land were not suitable for human settlements. Hence, those Kumari mountains could be considered as the southern boundary of the Kumari Land and thereby the Tamil land. Third conclusion also coincides with Tolkappiyam which demarcates the boundaries of Tamil Lands as Venkata hills in the north and Kumari hills in the south. It was in that Tamil Land, including the Kumari Land and the modern Kerala state, the ancient Tamil civilization flourished.

DATE

Next, we have to fix the date of the ancient Tamil civilization Thenmadurai, the first Pandya capital submerged under the sea around 3000 B.C. Adding atleast 500 years more to that for the development of civilization in Thenmadurai, it may be stated that civilization had began there around 3500 B.C. According to K. Nedunchezhian, around 500 B.C., a new religion Ajvika (a cult of Iyanar worship) began to spread in Tamil Land. So, 500 B.C. may be fixed as the closing date of the ancient Tamil civilization flourished in Tamil Land approximately between 3500 B.C. and 500 B.C.

PEOPLE

The ancient Tamil land was wholly peopled by the Tamils only. They were Tamils by the language they had spoken and Dravidians by race. On this, there is a general agreement among scholars. But, on the question of the original home of the Dravidians, differences of opinion persist among scholars. Some scholars consider the megalithic culture of South India as posterior to the megalithic cultures of Europe and Central Asia and so the Dravidians hailed either from Europe or from Central Asia.

But, the recent scientific dating of the Adittanallur megalithic culture puts it around 2000 B.C., which is approximately the same period of the megalithic cultures of Europe and Central Asia. So, we surmise that the megalithic cultures of Europe, Central Asia and South India evolved independently and more or less at the same time. Therefore, the theory that the Dravidians carried the megalithic culture from Europe to South India via Central Asia is not valid any more.

Another view was the Dravidians entered India through the north west, developed Indus valley civilization and settled in North India. Later, the Dravidians were driven to South India by the invading Aryans. But the scholars failed to note that at the time of invasion of the Aryans around 1500 B.C., the Adittanallur culture was in full blossom. At that time the Dravidians were already in South India as a highly civilized society. So, the theory that the Aryans drove away the Dravidians to South India is not correct.

Certain similarities between the place-names, social customs, religious beliefs and spoken words are also cited as evidences for the foreign origin of the Dravidians. But it could be the other way also. These similarities may be due to the movement of the Dravidians from the south to the north and may also be due to the commercial interactions and movement of the people from one place to another, either way.

The ancient Tamil Land was equally a fertile land like that of the Mediterranean region and Central Asia for the emergence and development of human civilization. Therefore, ancient Tamil civilization evolved independently and nearly around the same time of the Sumerian, Babylonian, Egyptian and Indus valley civilizations. So, the recent evidences and interpretations are strongly in favour of the theory that the ancient Tamil Land was the original home land of the Dravidians.

EXCAVATIONS

Dr. Jagor of Berlin was the first to visit and excavate the ancient urn burial site at Adittanallur in Tuttukudi district in 1876. He has taken all the articles found at Adittanallur to the Berlin Museum. Next, M. Louis Lapicque of France conducted excavations at Adittanallur during 1903-1904, and also took some more articles unearthed from explorations at many sites situated along the course of the Tamaraparani river from Palayamkottai to the sea at intervals from 1899-1904. As thousands of urns were buried on the slope of a hillock, it may also be called as Mound of Dead, like that of Mohenjodaro, which means a Mount of Dead. Therefore, Adittanallur may be described as the Mohenjodaro of South India.

It was reported that about 9000 objectives were discovered during the excavations. The objects, yielded from the burial sites, are finely made pottery of various kinds in great number, many iron implements and weapons; vessels and personal ornaments in bronze; a few gold ornaments; a few stone beads; pieces of clothes; bones; ivory; sandalwood; and some household stone implements used for grinding.

During 2004-2005, a team of archaeologists led by T. Satyamurthy conducted excavations at Adittanallur. They discovered more than 160 urns within an area of 600 sq.meters. They also discovered a habitation site near that place. Various samples of potteries, found at the burial sites in Adittanallur, were sent to the Manipur University’s dating laboratory to scientifically fix their date.

Accordingly, 2000 B.C. has been fixed as the date of Kapatapuram, the second capital of the ancient Pandyas. Therefore, we may conclude that the Adittanallur culture flourished along with the Kumari Land culture and even after the submersion of the latter by the sea.

About twenty Copper antennae swords of 4000 years old were found at Shavinipatti village in Sivagangai district in 1980; Appukkal village in Vellore district in 2000; and Kuppuchipudur village in Coimbatore district in 2001.

The ancient site at Korkai was first excavated in 1827 by R. Caldwell, who found a few urns of giant size. Next, during 1968-69 a team of archaeologists led by R. Nagasamy conducted excavations at Korkai. They discovered a number of inscribed potsherd with Tamil scripts, various objects of copper and iron, perforated terracotta tiles, beads of crystal, conch sheels, and pearl-oysters. The charred pieces found at korkai gave C14 determinant of 2755+- 95 i.e. 785 B.C.

In 2009-2010 a team of archaeologists led by k. Rajan conducted excavations at Porunthal near Pazhani town in Dindigul district. They discovered a red polished ware ring-stand with Tamil script, carnelian beads, a furnace for glass bead making, terracotta figurines, ivory objects, 2 kg of paddy grains, iron swords, arrow heads, pots, basins, vases, plates and ring-stands. The paddy grains were sent for radiometric dating and it has been dated to 2400+-30 i.e. 490 B.C. by Beta Analytic Laboratory, U.S.A. This date coincides with the end-date of the ancient Tamil Civilization.

TOLKAPPIYAM

Tolkappiyam was written prior to Rig Veda, which was composed in fourteenth century B.C. Several seals discovered in the Indus valley indicate certain religious traditions mentioned in Tolkappiyam, which prove that Tolkappiyam belonged to the age of the last phase of the Indus valley civilization i.e. 1500 B.C. Almost all Tamil scholars agree that Tolkappiyam belonged to the last phase of the Second Tamil Sangam held at Kapatapuram, which was engulfed by the sea around 1500 B.C.

Therefore, we may safely conclude that Tolkappiyam was written in 1500 B.C. So, we may attempt to construct the social and cultural history of the Tamils in the ancient Tamil Land on the basis of the vivid picture on the social and cultural life of the Tamils portrayed in Tolkappiyam and also on the basis of the artifacts and other materials discovered from the megalithic sites in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

GOVERNMENT

The king was the head of the government. There were three famous dynasties of rulers in ancient Tamil Land. They were Chera, Chola and Pandya dynasties. The duties and responsibilities of the head kings regulated by tradition and customs. Therefore, the king was neither a tribal chieftain nor a despot. He was guided by the assembly of scholars and poets.

The kings maintained large armies, which had three divisions- infantry, elephantry and cavalry. The soldiers carried swords, spears, daggers, bows and arrows to the battlefield. At first, they used copper swords. Later, after the discovery of iron, they began to use iron swords and did not use the copper swords. The Tamil soldiers were renowned for their bravery and chivalry. There was a custom to erect hero-stones in honour of the dead soldiers.

SOCIETY

The ancient Tamils divided the Tamil Land into four divisions viz, Kurinji (the hilly region), Mullai (the forest land), Mardam (the cultivable land) and Neidal (the sea-shore). The people of Kurinji, Mullai, Marudam and Neidal were called Vettuvar, Ayar, Uzhavar and Paravathavar respectively. The Vettuvar or hunters, Aayar-shepherds, Uzhavar-farmers, and Parathavar-fishermen. There were also potters, balck-smiths, gold-smiths, weavers, carpenters and merchants. There was no caste system in ancient Tamil Land.

The people wore cotton and muslin clothes. They adorned their neck and predominant parts of their body with ornaments made of beads, copper and bronze. They were accustomed to the use of sandal paste and perfumes. They knew the use of metal mirrors. Ladies used to colour their eyelashes with the black dye and were fond of wearing jewels such as necklaces and bangles. Their household utensils included pottery of various kinds, and vessels made of bronze.

The life of the ancient Tamils was generally divided into two namely, Aham and Puram. Aham dealt with love-life and Puram with profession and worldly life; war and peace; charity and doings of royalty with reference to the interests and problems of society. The ancient Tamils knew the meteorological science. They keenly observed climatic changes and divided a year of twelve months into six seasons of each having two months on the

basis of climatic change. Even full day was divided by them into six equal parts.

CITIES

The ancient Tamil Land was dotted with many villages as well as big fortified capital cities such as Thenmadurai, Kapatapuram, Madurai, Uraiyur and Vanji. There were also port cities like Korkai, Tondi and Musiri and industrial city-Adittanallur. The burnt bricks were used for the construction of houses. Besides king’s palaces, there were mansions for the nobles and big merchants. The ordinary people lived in round-shaped or rectangular huts. The rich decorated their houses with saucer lamps of different types and vase stands.

INDUSTRY

Along with agriculture, which was the main occupation of the people, industries and crafts also thrived. The smithy was an important industry, were agricultural implements and weapons of war were forged and repaired. The other smiths made artistic ornaments in gold, bronze and copper. Adittanallur was a famous mining and industrial centre. The carpenters designed doors, windows and other wooden articles. Spinning and weaving were the widely practiced crafts. Pearl-diving was another activity, which led to the collection of valuable gems. Salt was manufactured along the coastal belt.

TRADE

Trade, both inland and foreign, was brisk in ancient Tamil Land. Trade was carried out by barter system. Merchants moved from place to place in groups and carried their goods on bullock carts. Tamil merchants sailed from the famous ports Tondi, Musiri and Korkai to the Indus Valley, Central Asia, Arab countries, Malaysia and China. Rice, pepper, ginger, ahil, sandalwood, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric, ivory, pearls, beryl, coriandum, muslin cloths, monkeys, deers, peacocks, etc. were some of the items exported to foreign countries.

DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD

The cremation of dead bodies was unknown to the ancient Tamils. They buried the dead bodies at the burial ground which was in a separate place away from the city or from the dwelling places. The dead bodies were kept in specially made conffins of black and red ware called Emathazhi (urn). The things used and dear to to dead person such as clothes, weapons, utensils, ornaments, food etc were placed inside and outside the urn. If the dead were persons of rank of importance, a practice of Pattayam Kattaradu i.e., tying a strip of gold diadems, an inch or two in length, on the forehead of the dead was in vogue among the Tamils. On the burial place of a soldier, who had valiantly fought and died on the battlefield, a hero stone was erected to honour him.

LANGUAGE

The language spoken by the people of ancient Tamil Land was Tamil. Most of the scholars consider that the early script of the Tamil language was Tamil Brahmi which was derived from Asokan Brahmi. But the recent researches proved that Tamili was the script of the Tamil language, which was independent of Asokan Brahmi and in fact pre-Asokan Brahmi by several centuries. This has been attested to by the potsherds with Tamil scripts discovered at Adittanallur and other megalithic burial sites. Regarding education, it was open to all sections of the people, including women and in all the regions of Tamil Land, both in urban and rural areas.

TAMIL ACADEMIES

The commentator on Iraiyanar Agapporul was the first to describe the three Tamil Sangams (Academies) which existed in ancient Tamil Land. After him, we find many references in Tamil literature about Tamil Sangams. But doubts are raised over the existence of the Sangams, pointing to the legend that Gods were members of the Sangam and the long regnal years given to the kings. We shall neglect those two and try to deduce the truth from the literature about the Sangams.

The Pandyan kings patronized the poets and extended all help to the growth of Tamil language and literature. The Tamil poets and scholars quite often assembled at the king’s court and held literary discussions there. Such a meeting of poets presided over by the king was poetically described as Sangam. Unfortunately the Pandayan capitals, Thenmadurai and Kapatapuram, were violently hit by successive tsunamis and engulfed by the sea.

Therefore, the Pandyas have to shift their capitals first from the Thenmadurai to Kapatapuram and then from Kapatapuram to the present- day Madurai. As a result of this shifting, the Pandyas had three capital cities-Thenmadurai, Kapatapuram and modern Madurai and consequently by the assembly of poets also met in the Pandayan courts in these three places, which lent to the title three Sangams. If the Pandyas had only one capital, then there would be only one Sangam. However, it is a historical fact that the first Tamil Sangam functioned at Thenmadurai; the second at Kapatapuram and the third and the last at the modern Madurai.

LITERATURE

Though many literary works were said to have been produced during the first Tamil Sangam period, none of them are available today, except their names. During the second Tamil Sangam period, Tolkappiyam was written by Tolkappiyar. No other literary works are available in that period also. But during the third Tamil Sangam period, abundant literature were produced. Since our scope of study extends only upto sixth century B.C., it would not be possible to cull out and list the literature chronologically that belongs to our period of study.

LINK WITH INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

There are many things common between the Indus valley civilization and the ancient Tamil civilization to prove the links that existed between the two great civilizations. The authors of both the civilizations were Dravidians. The black and red ware tradition, the handmade earthenware vessels like food plates, incense burners, lotas, flat based bowels, multiple pots were common to both the civilizations. The excavations at Adittanallur, Korkai and Sanur have yielded tangible evidences to connect these two civilizations.

There are representations of Mother Goddess, tress, animals etc. on the seals of the Indus valley, which can also be found on artefacts discovered at Adittanallur, Korkai and other urn burial sites. Tolkappiyam gives a detailed account of the religion of the ancient Tamils, most of which correspond to the religious life of the people of the Indus valley.

B.B. Lal points out the similarities between the graffiti of ancient Tamil Land and Harappan script. Iravatham Mahadevan concludes that the inscription of the Neolithic axe found at Sembiyan kaniddyur was closely a related to the Indus script. Poornachandra Jeeva opines that the Tamili script was a descendant of the Indus script.

The Indus valley civilization is known as city civilization. Though the ancient Tamil Land was dotted with many villages, it also had fortified great cities like Thenmadurai, Kapatapuram, Madurai, Vanji and Uraiyur.

All these point to the fact that the ancient Tamil Civilization was contemporary to the Indus valley civilization. But the Indus Valley civilization collapsed and disappeared around 1500 B.C, whereas the ancient Tamil civilization continues to grow and flourish without any break till date. Only a few ancient civilizations of the world continue to flourish even today. Tamil civilizations is one among them. It continues to zealously safeguard its uniqueness and contribute its share to the human civilization of the world in modem times.

Special Thanks to:

Prof. Dr. A. Ramasamy

President

Dravidian Historical Research Centre

Courtesy: http://new.modernrationalist.com/2013/04/history-of-ancient-tamil-civilization/

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Tamil Language

The Tamil language is spoken mainly in Southern India. It is a member of the Dravidian language family, a group of about thirty languages (~225 million speakers in total) concentrated in southern India, but also in Pakistan as well. The Dravidian language family is distinct from the Indo-European language family (which includes Hindi and many other Indian languages, Farsi, and the Germanic and Romance languages among others). Of all Tamil speakers (totalling about 65 million) Over ninety percent live in Tamil Nadu, one of India’s four southern states. However, Tamil is also spoken in neighboring states as well as both a first and second language. Northern Sri Lanka, located across the Palk Bay from Tamil Nadu, has a sizable Tamil speaking minority numbering 20% of the population (3-4 million). However, Tamil is not confined to South Asia. It is also spoken by sizable populations in South East Asia (Malaysia, Singapore, and Fiji) as well as in South Africa and parts of East Africa, Great Britain, the United States, Canada, and Trinidad, Guyana, Mauritius. It is an official language in India, Sri Lanka, and Singapore.

It has a long literary tradition dating to antiquity and has been spoken and written in southern India for several thousand years (the earliest inscriptions date from 200 BC). The oldest literature, the Sangam literature, is a poetic tradition that deals mainly with love (Akam literature) and war (Puram literature). However, the ancient Tamil literary tradition also spans topic such as grammar (Tolkappiyam), philosophy and ethics (Tirukkural), as well as epics. Tamil, from Sangam on, has been written in a syllabic script (called the Grantha script) derived from the Brahmi script (dating from 2000 B.C). Contra a phonetic script (an alphabet) where each written symbol represents a phonetic unit (like a consonant or vowel) and words are combined from these letters, in a syllabic script symbols stand in for syllables (e.g., க, ka, and கு, ku, are separate symbols). In addition to these, there are symbols that denote the vowels and the consonants in isolation.

Tamil is a diglossic language. This means that there is a large disparity between the written form of the language and the spoken form. These differences include grammatical differences, vocabulary differences, and pronunciation differences. As the Tamil literary tradition is a source of pride, especially its antiquity and purity, written Tamil has traditionally been attempted to be kept relatively conservative to change. The literary form is considered the high, or prestige, form and the spoken variety a low status form by all social classes. This means that, by and large, literary Tamil is used in formal occasions and settings–most literature, media (including radio and television), political speeches, etc.–whereas the spoken form is used in everyday conversation.

Despite this diglossia, Tamil like all other languages, has received influence from other languages. Historically, one of the main sources for loan words has been Sanskrit, an Indo-European language that is a sister language of Latin and Greek, and a parent language of Hindi, Bengali, and other northern Indian languages. Beside Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic words have also has their impact on Tamil. However, since colonial times and culture contact with the British, English has become the most influential language on the Tamil language (e.g., loan words) as well as on the Tamil speakers (English is a prestige language that gives access to the government, jobs, etc.). At the same time, the influence of English has co-occurred with pro-Tamil movements–for example, the Tamil purism movement begun by Maraimalai Adigal in the 19th century and carried on by the Dravidian political parties

Tamil Language, History and Literature

PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE

The land of Tamil speech and people was in ancient times ruled by three famous lines of king, the Chera, Chola, and Pandiya. . The land ruled by them was called Chera Nadu (Chera country), Chola Nadu (Chola country), and Pandiya Nadu (Pandiaya country) respectively.

The landmass covered by the present-day Kerala State in the South India formed a major part of Chera Nadu, the Central and Northern parts of present Tamil Nadu were the then Chola Nadu and the Southern part of Tamil Nadu was the Pandiya Nadu.

Tamils are of Dravidian origin. Many historians claim that the Dravidians, before the dawn of the history of the Tamils, were spread all over India. For various reason they split into small groups. Consequently, the original language also split into different languages. Tamil is found to have retained about 80 per cent of the features of the original Dravidian language.

There are three major sub-groups in the Dravidian family of language, namely, South Dravidian, Central Dravidian, and North Dravidian.

The languages of the South Dravidian sub-group is mainly,

1. Tamil

2. Malayalam

3. Kodagu

4. Kota

5. Toda

6. Kannada

7. Tulu

The languages of the Central Dravidian sub-group are mainly:

1. Telugu

2. Gondi

3. Konda

4. Pengo

5. Manda

6. Kui

7. Kuvi

8. Kolami

9. Nayki

10. Parji

11. Gadba

The languages of the North Dravidian sub-group are mainly:

1. Kurukh

2. Malto

3. Brahui

Tamil is spoken predominantly in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is spoken also in several other Indian states. In addition, Tamil speaking populations are found in Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, Fiji Islands and South Africa. Recent Tamil immigrants are found all over the world. The distribution of Tamil-speaking population found in the States of India according to the book ‘Distribution of Languages in India in States and Union Territories’, 1971, is given below:

State/Union Territory Tamil-Speaking

Population Percentage

Andhra Pradesh 552,421.27

Assam & Meghalaya 29920.02

Bihar 15,1670.03

Gujarat 15,9950.06

Jammu & Kashmir 8230.02

Kerala 505,3402.37

Madhya Pradesh 28,7350.07

Tamil Nadu 34,817,42184.51

Maharashtra 233,9880.46

Karnataka 990,4093.38

Orissa 91600.04

Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. 61280.02

Rajasthan 3564 0.01

Uttar Pradesh 9222 0.01

West Bengal 21,454 0.05

Andaman and Nicobar Islands 14,518 12.62

Delhi 37,343 0.92

Lackshadeep, and Minicoy Islands 113 0.35

Manipur 834 0.08

Tripura 82 —-

Dadra and Nagar Haveli 11 0.01

Goa, Daman, and D 3347 0.39

Pondicherry 419,830 88.95

Nagaland 469 0.09

Arunachal Pradesh 638 0.14

TAMIL LITERATURE

The recorded history of the Tamil literature can be grouped broadly into seven periods. They are:

1. Sangam Period – 3rd Century BCE-2nd Century CE

2. Later Sangam Period – 2nd Century CE- 6th Century CE

3. Pallava Period – 6thCentury CE-9the Century CE

4. Chola Period – 9th Century CE-12th Century CE

5. Nayak Period – 13th Century CE-17th Century CE

6. European Period – 17th Century CE-19th Century CE

7. Present Period – 20th Century CE onwards

For our purposes, the Tamil literature may broadly be classified into:

(i) Sangam Classics

(ii) Bhakthi or Devotional Literature

(iii) Ethics, and

(iv) Modern Literature

(i) Sangam Classics

The early Tamil literatures are called Sangam Classics. Though there are controversies over the time of the Classics, generally the period between 200 BCE and 500 CE is considered the period of Sangam. Sangam Classics are mostly descriptive. They describe nature, human feelings, love, lovers, husband-wife relations, war, etc. Pathuppattu, an anthology of ten poems, and Ettuthokai, a collection of eight anthologies, are two major Sangam Classics.

The following are known as Pathuppattu.

1. Thirumurukarruppadai

2. Porunararruppadai

3. Perumpanarruppadai

4. Sirupanarruppadai

5. Mullaippattu

6. Maduraikanchi

7. Nedunalvadai

8. Kurinchippattu

9. Pattinappalai

10. Malaipadukadam

The following are known as Ettuthokai.

1. Narrinai

2. Kurunthokai

3. Aynkurunuru

4. Pathirruppathu

5. Paripadal

6. Kalithokai

7. Agananuru

8. Purananuru

In addition to these, there is another set of poems known as Pathinenkizhkankku that includes the following:

1. Naladiar

2. Nanmanikkadikai

3. Iniyavai Narpathu

4. Inna Narpathu

5. Kar Narpathu

6. Kalavazhi Narpathu

7. Thinaimozhi Aymathu

8. Thinaimalai Nurrayamathu

9. Aynthinai Aymathu

10. Aynthinai Ezhu pthu

11. Thirikadugam

12. Thirukkural

13. Asarkkovai

14. Pazhamozhi Nanuru

15. Sirupanjamulam

16. Mudumozhikkanci

17. Elathi

18. Kaynnilai

Many of the poems in this collection seem to belong to the post-Sangham Age. It is widely accepted that among these, Thirukkural was composed before the second century CE. The Thirukkural consists of 1330 Kural, which are short verses of seven words. Thiruvalluvar is the author of this book. This book consists of three major divisions, namely, Arathuppal, Porutpal and Inbathupal.

Arathupal deals with family life and ascetic life, which are called Illaram and Turavaram respectively. Perhaps this could be somewhat equated with the Sanskrit division Dharma (virtue). Porutpal deals with the rulers and the ruled and all the other aspects relevant to them. Perhaps this could be equated with the Sanskrit division Artha (meaning). Inbathuppal deals with love both premarital and extramarital. This could be somewhat equated with Kama (marital love). In short, Thirukkural is a very good guide for life and an excellent literary work to enjoy. This book has been translated into many Indian and foreign languages.

The famous Tamil work Silappathikaram belongs to the later Sangam period.

Saint Ilango, a Chera prince, wrote this epic. Silappathikaram is the story of a chaste woman, Kannaki. All Tamil people know the story of Kannaki. The author, Ilango, says in the prologue that the work is based on the truth that (i) a chaste woman is worthy of worship even by great people, (ii) the Aram (Dharma) becomes the destroyer of the kings who do injustice and (iii) the fate inevitably makes one to suffer the effect of one’s own actions. There is another epic known as Manimekalai by Sathnar, a contemporary of Saint Ilango. These two epics are known together as ’Twin Epics’.

(ii) Bhakthi or Devotional Literature

Bhakthi literature deals with religious philosophy, the history of saints, etc. Most of these are devotional poems. Religious teaching entered Tamil literature for the first time in Manimekalai. Sathanar the author of this book believed in Buddhism. The philosophy of Buddha is extensively discussed in Manimekalai.

After the 7th century CE, there was an acute fight between Saivites and Jainas as well as Saivites and Buddhists. The Nayanmars, the saints of Saivism, took many pains to spread and establish their religion all over Tamil Nadu. They were, to a great extent, successful in their attempt. Saivism as well as Vaishnavism clashed with Jainism and Buddhism. Consequently Jainism and Buddhism lost their ground in Tamil Nadu. Jains, Saivites, and Vaishnavites extensively used the medium of literature for the propagation of their religions. Sivagasinthamani is the outstanding work of Jains. Kambaramayanam is the most celebrated work of the Vaishnavites. Thiruvasakam is one of the most popular Saiva Bhakthi songs. Apart from these, there are many works for various religious groups.

(iii) Ethics

The major part of Thirukkural deals with morals. Literature was chosen as the best instrument to teach morals. The poetic works Naladiar, Nanmanikkadikai, Elathi, Sirupancamulam, Athiccudi, Konraiventhan, etc., are very popular in Tamil Nadu. Many memorize the verses of these works.

(iv) Modern Literature

Modern literature must be dealt with under two sub-headings:

(1) Prose and (2) Poetry.

It may be noted that prose writings have gained more popularity in this century. Prose style is chosen as a better medium for novels, short stories, essays, etc.

1. Prose: Prose literature may be generally classified into two components: (a) Novels and (b) Short stories.

a. Novels

The first novel published in Tamil was Prathaba Mudaliar Sarithiram. Vedanayagam Pillai who lived in the 19th century wrote this novel. Now there are a number of novels in Tamil. Among the recent novelists Akilan, N. Parthasarathi, Jayagandhan, Sandilyan Ashoka Mitram and others are eminent writers.

Mu. Varadarajan’s Kallo Kaviyamo, Nencil Oru Mul and Akal Vilakku,

Akilan’s Pavvai Vilakku and Nencin Alikal,

Parthasarathy’s Kurincimalar and Ponvilangu,

Sandilyan’s Yavana Rani, Kadal Pura, and Raja Muthirai, etc, are excellent works in the sphere of Tamil novels. Also Akilan received the ‘Gnana Peeth Award’ for his novel, Cithirappavai.

b. Short Stories

Puthumaippithan was considered as an outstanding short story writer and paved the way for the future field of short story in Tamil. He was considered as king of short stories in Tamil. Jayakantan is one of the eminent and popular storywriters in Tamil. He is not only a storywriter, but also a novelist. His novels Parisukkupo, Vazhkai Azhaikkiratu, etc., are worth reading. Among his novels, Akkinippiravesam is extremely good. Another storywriter who deserves our appreciation is R. Sutamani. She has written many stories among which Unam stands unique. Jayasirpiyan, Sundara Ramasamy, A. Madhavan, Ashoka Mithiran, Nava Bharathi P. Pukazhenthi, Puvai S. Arumugam and others are well known writers in the field of Tamil short story writing.

Apart from these stories, there are a number of stories published in several weekly and monthly magazines. Kumudam, Anandha Vikadan, Kalaimagal, Kalki, Tiipam, Kungumam, Taay, Minnambalam and several others are the journals that give primary importance to stories.

2. Poetry

The late poet Subramanya Bharathi popularly known as ‘Bharathi’ started a new era in the history of poetry. He used poetry as an instrument to arouse patriotism, and was successful to a great extent. His poetry went not only to the hands of scholars but also to the hands of common people. The complete works of Bharathi were published under the title Bharathiyar Kavithaikal. Among his works Kannan Pattu, Kuyil Pattu and Panchali Sabadham are outstanding.

Another poet the late Bharathidhasan, the beloved follower of Bharathi, is the most celebrated and outstanding poet in Tamil Nadu. He followed Bharathi in making Tamil poetry very popular and in using it as the best instrument to inspire people. But he deviated from Bharathi in many respects. Bharathi believed in God but Bharathidhasan did not. While Bharathi was preoccupied by the problems of the freedom struggle and other national interests, Bharathidhasan was particular in the development of the Tamil Nadu, Tamil language, Tamil people, and Tamil culture. Among his literary works, Pandiyan Parisu, Kudumba Vilakku, Tamil Ilakkam and Azhakin Sirippu are highly valuable.

Besides these two poets, Kannadhasan, Abddul Rahuman, Vairamuthu, Mudiyarasan, Surada, Tamizh Azhagan, K. C. S. Arunachalam, Ponnadiyan, and Mu. Metha and others enrich the field of Tamil poetry. Kannadhasan’s Attanathi Athimanthi and Mangani and Mudiyarasan’s Pungodi are excellent works. Sudhanantha Bharathi is a living poet in Tamil Nadu. Sri Aurobindo influences him. His work Bharatha Sakthi is very famous. This book won the Raja Rajan Award of 100,000 rupees.

Besides these works, there are a number of anthologies of poems published in this century. Several poems are being published in weekly and monthly magazines. Mullaicaram, Kavidhai and a few other journals give primary importance to poetry.

In this connection, mention should be made about the new or modern poetry. The modern poets, Pichaimurthi, Mani Vaidheswaran and others are interested in modern poetries. They are of the opinion that the Tamil literary field needs new experiments and new developments and they believe that their attempt may contribute something to the Tamil literature.

TAMIL GRAMMATICAL TRADITION

In general, grammar includes phonology, morphology and syntax. But Classical Tamil tradition seems to differ from this. The earliest grammar Tholkappiyam deals not only with phonology, morphology and syntax but also with personal and impersonal, internal and external aspects of life, beauty of literature, behavioral aspects of human life, Tamil linguistic traditions, etc., and this portion is termed Porulathikaram.

According to the tradition that Tholkappiyar followed a grammar is three fold:

(1) Ezhuthu (sounds and letters),

(2) (2) Col (words),

(3) (3) Porul (meaning).

Later it was five fold:

(1) Ezhuthu,

(2) (2) Col,

(3) (3) Porul,

(4) Yappu (versification), and

(5) Ani (beauty of literature).

Tholkappiyam:

Tholkappiyam, the earliest grammar available in Tamil, deals with phonology and morphophonemics in the firs part known as Ezuttatikaaram. It deals with morphology and syntax in the second part known as Collatikaaram. In the third part known as Porulatikaaram, it deals with the subject matter of literature, some literary and linguistic traditions, etc. This grammar is considered to have been written in the early pre-Christian era.

Nannul: Next to Tholkappiyam, Nannul is the outstanding work in the field of Tamil grammars. Saint Pavananti who lived around the 13th century CE wrote this grammar. This grammar contains only Ezhuthu and Col. The first chapter Ezhuthu deals with phonology and morphophonemic, and the second chapter Col deals with morphology and syntax.

ARTS, ARCHITECTURE, etc.

Art of Music

The ancient Tamils possessed a highly developed system of music and musical instruments. Their musical culture was at a high level. Works dealing exclusively with the science of music were written during the Sangam period, but were lost long ago. The Silappthikaram of the second century A. D. throws flood of light on the music of the Tamils. Music in Tamil nomenclature is isai. They had five kinds of Pans (specific melody type), namely Mullai, Kurinji, Marudham, Neythal and Palai. Apart from this, they had seven musical notes, viz., Kural, Thuttam, Kaykkilai, Uzhai, Ili, Vilari and Tharam. These seven notes might be roughly equated with the seven modern musical notes sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, and ni (saptha svaras ‘seven notes’). Tamil books associate the following animals and birds with the saptha svaras: sa with beetle, ri with parrot, ga with horse, ma with elephant, pa with cuckoo, dha with cow, and ni with goat. Whereas the Sanskrit tradition of Bharata compare saptha svaras with the cries of animals and birds, viz., sa with peacock, ri with cow, ga with goat, ma with heron, pa with Indian nightingle, dha with horse, and ni with elephant. Through the Sangam works one can learn that the Tamils had many musical instruments. They had their famous yazhs (kind of harps). Sagotta yazh, Peri yazh, Siri yazh, Mahara yazh, Sengattu yazh, and are the names denoting different kinds of yazhs. Sagotta yazh was a stage instrument. Peri yazh was a large harp consisting of twenty-one strings while Siri yazh with seven strings. Among all yazhs, Peri yazh and Siri yazh seems to be very ancient.

Music was always associated with dancing in ancient times. The treatment of music as an independent of its relation to dancing is found only in later works after Silappathikaram.

It appears that in the period of Nayanmars and Alwars, the native system of music was retained with some deviations. Some of the pans are still used in the recitals of the Devaram hymns. In the year 1943 the patron of Tamil language, literature and arts, Dr. Raja Sir Annamalai Chettiar started the Tamil Music Academy at Chennai and thereby he attempted to restore and enrich the Tamil music.

Dance

Tamil is broadly classified into Iyal ‘prose’, Isai ‘poetry’ and Nadakam ‘drama’. Nattiyam or Kuthu is mainly concerned with dance. The ancient Tamils had two kinds of Kuthu: (1) Vethiyal and (2) Podhuviyal. Vethiyal is especially meant for royal families and Podhuviyal is meant for the public. Later on this convention had disappeared. Since the kings had slowly lost their power the arts patronized by them also gradually lost their glamour. Thus the Vethiyal type of drama became extinct. The Silapathikaram furnishes the legendary origin of dancing. The ancient Tamil country is the home of the classical dance known as Bharata Natyam. Drama and dance gradually emerged as two different branches. In1960s and 1970s cinema overshadowed drama.

Drawing and Painting:

The kings also patronized the art of drawing and painting. All over Tamil Nadu one can see temples, small and big, and almost all the temples are decorated by drawings and paintings. The paintings at Cithannavasal near Pudhukkottai in Tanjavur district are worth seeing.

Architecture and Scripture

Tamil Nadu is famous for huge temples and marvelous Gopurams (temple towers). Raja Rajan, the Chola king (11 A.D.), constructed a temple in Tanjavur. This temple Gopuram is very tall and it is called Thanjaipperiya Koil, the big temple of Tanjavur. His son Rajendra Chola, who subdued the rulers of the region up to the river Ganges, constructed another big temple in Gangai Konda Cholapuram. Except that the Thanjai periya Koil is bigger in size than the temple in Gangai Konda Cholapuram, they are exactly similar. The former was named as Rajarajeswaram and the latter was named as Gangai Kondacholeswaram. These temples are famous for the huge Nandis ‘bulls’ and Lingams. The temples of Madurai Meenakshi Amman, Kanchipuram Varadharajapperumal, and Chidambaram Natarajar are worth seeing. The skill of Tamils in architecture and sculpture can be seen in these temples. The five Rathams (cars) carved in rocks at Mahabalipuram are extremely beautiful. There are also other works that show the skill of Tamils in sculpture. The Collections of Vigrahas ‘icons,’ statues, drawings and paintings, etc., found in the museums of Madras, Tanjavur, Pattiswaram and Kaverippumattinam deserve special mention.

SOCIO-CULTURE

Day-to-Day Life

The Tamils are mainly rice-eaters. Sambar, Rasam, and Thayir ‘curd’ or Mor ‘buttermilk’ is mixed along with rice. Potato, beans, carrots, cabbage, eggplant, okra, and other vegetables are the side dishes. The majority of the Tamils are non-vegetarians, though their intake is mainly vegetarian food. On special occasions a kind of sweet dish known as Payasam is served. After taking meals, they occasionally chew betel leaf and areca nut.

In urban areas, people favor the eatables (tiffen), Iddli, Dhosai, Puri, etc., and they drink coffee, tea or milk. In rural areas people take rice. Nowadays almost all the villages are being urbanized in this respect. Especially youngsters are fond of Tiffin in the morning times. It may also be mentioned that there are people in villages who usually take Kanchi (rice porridge) in the morning. Idlli, Vadai, Pongal, Upuma, Puri, Chappathi, Dhosai, etc., are the tiffin items. Iddli, Chatini and Sambar are more common items.

As far as clothing is concerned, Tamil men wear Veshti (worn in the so-called lungi fashion) and Sattai ‘shirt’ and women wear Pudavai ‘sari’, and Ravikkai ‘blouse’. Men wear pants and shirts, too, though it’s not very common. Boys wear Kal sattai ‘half-pant’ and shirt. Young girls wear Dhavani ‘half-sari’, Pavadai ‘petty-coat’, and Ravikkai. Some orthodox men adorn themselves with turbans.

Silk saris, namely, Kanchipattu pudavai woven in the town of Kanchipuram in Tami Nadu are famous for their durability and worn by ladies on special occasions. Ladies also wear a variety of ornaments. A few of them are, Modhiram ‘ring’, Valayal, ‘bangle’, Mukkuthi ‘nose ornament’, Thodu ‘ear ornament’, necklace ‘neck ornament’, Kolusi ‘leg ornament’, etc. Married women wear Tali ‘mangala sutra’ as the symbol for marriage. Generally men wear wristwatch, rings, etc. All these ornaments are made out of gold. In rural areas some people wear earrings, wrist-chains, etc. Almost all the people in the rural areas are agriculturists and agricultural laborers. The office-going people, daily wagers, business people and other laborers inhabit the urban areas.

When known persons meet, they exchange respect and affection by the Tamil phrase vaanga vanakkam. This vaanga vanakkam (please do come/welcome/greeting) is similar to namasthe or namaskar, the greetings words used widely in the North India. At the time of departure pooy varukireen or simply varukireen is used. Though this means in the Tamil society literally come but implies now I go and will be back to meet you again.

Festivals

There are a number of festivals observed in Tamil Nadu. Very famous festivals are Pongal, Deepavali and Karthikai. Among them Pongal is considered to be the special festival of Tamil Nadu and it is called Tamizhar Thirunal, the festival of harvest celebrated for four days in mid-January. . Pongal festival takes place towards the final stage of harvest.

The first day of Pongal is known as Bogi or Bogi pandikai. On that day people worship the Rain God. Also, all the old and unusable articles are burnt in bonfires. The second day of Pongal is the Pongal proper. On this day people worship the Sun God. The third day is Mattu Pongal. On this day they bathe the cattle and worship them, as they are the mainstay of farm life. The fourth day is known as Karinal or Kanum Pongal or Kanni Pongal. On this day villages assemble at a public place and many native games. They meet with their friends and relatives on this day. The young virgins pray to the god to get good partners and happy life

Deepavali is enthusiastically celebrated in both urban and rural areas of Tamil Nadu. It is believed that Deepavali is celebrated in memory of the demon Narakasuran who was killed by Lord Vishnu on the day of Deepavali. Symbolically this means god destroys evil.

Karthikai is commonly celebrated by all Tamils putting Diibam (lights) out every night throughout the Tamil month Karthikai. During this period people worship Lord Murugan also called Kartikeyan or Subramanyan son of Lord Siva.

Apart from these popular festivals, there are several other festivals such as car festivals in many villages and towns. Tamil Nadu is full of fairs and festivals in particular, car festivals.

There are also a number of folk deities who are worshipped with equal if not more fervor all over Tamil Nadu. Also the rituals and ceremonies that take place at birth, naming, ear boring, puberty, marriage and death differ from region to region, from caste to caste, and from religion to religion.

UNIVERSITIES IN TAMIL NADU

There are fifteen universities in Tamil Nadu engaged in the development of the Tamil language, literature, culture, etc. They are namely, Annamalai University at Annamalainagar, established 75 years ago; Madras University, which was established over 150 years ago; Madurai Kamaraj University at Madurai; Tami University at Tanjavur; Bharathiyar University at Coimbatore and Bharatidasan University at Tiruchirappalli and like. Apart from these universities, the International Institute of Tamil Studies functioning at Madras also works for the development of Tamil studies. There is also a technological university in Madras named Anna University. Mother Theresa Woman’s University at Kodaikkanal and Gandhigram Deemed University are the other universities in Tamil Nadu.

Tamils have made significant contributions to Indian culture and the Independence struggle. People like V. O. Chidambaram Pillai and Poet Subramania Bharati are notable among them. In the sciences, Sir C. V. Raman and Professor Chandrrasekhar received the Nobel Prize from Tamil Nadu. There are many novelists who have received the prestigious Sahithya Academy awards and Gnana Peeth Awards for their outstanding literary works.

Tamil Diglossia: Spoken and Written

There is a wide gap between spoken and written Tamil. Spoken Tamil is used for face-to-face communication or in informal occasions whereas written Tamil is used during official speeches and other formal occasions. Spoken Tami is not generally written; thus, while writing, the written form is invariably used. While there is a wide gap between the two forms of Tamil, there are certain rules the use of that help the learner to derive one form of language from another.

Tamil studies:

There are number of universities in India and Sri Lanka which have facilities for Tamil Studies. In India (excepting Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka the following institutions have programs for Tamil studies:

1. Punjab University, Chandigarh

2. Punjab University, Patiala

3. Delhi University, Delhi

4. Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

5. Agra University, Agra

6. Lucknow University, Lucknow

7. Allahabad University, Allahabad

8. Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

9. Calcutta University, Calcutta

10. Osmania University, Hyderabad

11. Sri Krishna Devaraya University, Anantapur

12. Sri Venkateswara University, Thirupati

13. Karnataka University, Dharwad

14. Mysore University, Mysore

15. Calicut University, Chittoor

16. University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram

In Sri Lanka:

17. University of Jaffna

18. University of Colombo

19. Peradeniya University

In the US there are about ten universities that have programs for Tamil language and literatures, and culture etc.

Source

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_language

http://www.thetamillanguage.com/

http://www.kural.org/

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